PREFACE

This bibliography, the working out of which started in 1997, has as its background my desire to document the abundance and wealth of interesting matters in a field I've been engaged in since the beginning of the seventies - as a composer, musician, music therapist, music organisation worker and teacher. Many of the musical works mentioned here I know from both practise and from theoretical study. A number of authors and writers I have met personally, in Denmark as a part of the immediate context, and during journeys. ⁽²⁾

As a composer and musician I have since 1971 in the Group for Alternative Music been occupied by improvisation as a way in which to expand the monologue of composition into a dialogue and as a music form in itself. My context started on a background of classical music and has become increasingly mixed since. At Aalborg University, Music Therapy, the disciplines of Intuitive Music and Graphical Notation have existed since 1983 and 1986, developed and managed by the present writer. Intuitive Music is about collective improvisation as a playing practise. And about creating works for variable ensemble, frameworks within which to improvise. The subject of Graphic Notation deals with creating aural scores which map a given music recording and can be employed for remembering, for guiding the listening and for a closer analysis.

Readers are invited to contact me with comments and questions - c/o Aalborg University or via the email contact page at my homepage http://hjem.get2net.dk/intuitive/ .

I wish to thank all those who helped me, especially Guy de Bièvre and his staff at Logos Music Archives and Wilhelm Schlüter at Internationales Musikinstitut for special assistance.

INTRODUCTION

This text deals with

- those music works which are sometimes known as the librarian's enfant terrible: music with new notations which in a number of cases have not been written for a clearly specified ensemble.

- aural scores which also employ new forms of notation, and with

- improvisation in its free forms as a special new performance practise, its history and theory. This is BOTH about works giving space for improvisation AND about the practise of playing without pre-arrangements.

All those are musical phenomena having arisen on the background of the expanded concepts of material of new music - shortly, music as the art of soundmaking.

The text aims at contributing to research related to music history and to music therapy by sharply focusing on the written ressources which provide material and knowledge. Target groups include students, music therapy and music education colleagues, fellow musicians and composers and librarians. It aims at making the significance of these musical phenomena more visible and at being an aid in literature search. Through commenting with abstracts I have striven to make the literature more present to the reader also in those cases where it is solely presented through this text. A number of entries include references to Danish and foreign research libraries.

The basis for this is extensive bibliographical research. It reveals a "skyline", giving a fascinating impression of the development and developing on of a music practise during the 20th century which forms an aspect of new composed music and other genres. A music practise which has also had an essential significance to modern music education and music therapy - entire educational methods and institutions, among which existing music therapy educations, have directly originated from it.

Like is always the case with bibliographical work on a certain scale, light is shed both on areas where there is density of information and thoughts and where this is exactly absent ... and this could give realistic insight into what we are building on and could maybe yield inspiration to create some of that which one has not seen being done by others yet.

A selective and critical main principle has been employed: writings that seemed less substantial have not been included - else, one could have indexed the totality of articles in some of the periodicals investigated.

The list is based on first-hand knowledge of the writings and works, and at the same time, cf. the remarks in the specific appendices, I have striven to be as exhaustive as possible in the literature search. Writings and works I have not read or held in my hands have only exceptionally been listed. Parts of F1.2 and F1.3 (dealing with writers the relevance of whom I consider safe) are the most extensive among such exceptions.

Special attention has been given to listing Danish works, but the investigation has been international in its scope. Certain limitations have been dictated by language and geography - I have searched for literature in Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, German, French and in some exceptional cases, Italian. ⁽³⁾

Reflections on the "skyline" mentioned above lead to insight in the relation between published and unpublished in the field of music works and aural scores, to methodic considerations related to the literature on notation and to consideration of educational target groups. Further it leads to treating a large mass of materials and knowledge on the subject of improvisation, both as taking place within compositions and as free improvisation in its own right. Here, historic lines of developments and a wide range of attitudes and theories within many disciplines are uncovered - from the reflections of the seventies taking an immediate starting-point in the contemporary context to the weighty book works of the nineties. Relevant music history works and accessible bibliographical aids are mapped and described, a connection is made to the discipline of music therapy, and the way in which electronic media supplement the written ones is examined. ⁽⁴⁾

Unfortunately, I could not provide a lot of illustrative examples. For copyright reasons I could not quote freely, as would have been natural. But see instead the references! And: maybe this text should not be "read" but is rather for browsing. Remember, you can of course use common procedures of the browser to search for any text string. The text part has of course the aim to connect and to summarise, but it cannot and is not at all supposed to form a synthesis of everything. It is essential that the reader looks around in the appendix part according to interest and need. If you have the paper edition, you could place a finger in each section!

The chapters dealing with music works refer to paper publication which has been the sole form until few years before 1999 - digital publishing might play an expanding role in future.

Probably, my subjective form of engagement shines through at some places, and my own works as a composer and theoretician have been included. Hopefully, my interest in the subject also creates an inner coherence. I have sought to counteract arbitrariness by means of a reflected, systematic classification, and in the appendix part accounts have been made for the limitations applying to each list.

PRESENTATION OF THE CLASSIFICATION

IT HAS BEEN THE AIM TO MAP THE COMPOSITE FIELD OF IMPROVISATION AND DIFFERENT NOTATIONS - SEE THE SCHEME EXPLANING THE CLASSIFICATION IN THE VERY BEGINNING OF THIS TEXT.

The many differently designed part-bibliographies do form together a complex conglomerate which, however, seeks to cover the field of study comprehensively.

In A-D VARIABLE WORKS are investigated, that is compositions with space for improvisation and/or new notation forms AS WELL AS AURAL SCORES. It is specially noted how independently published works are supplemented by other categories which in a more or less complete way makes further material visible, and referring to some well-known names I advocate for the significance of these categories. Concerning material published in Denmark (categories A, B and C) the lists have been made as complete as possible. Concerning foreign material I have sought to provide a perspective by combining three very different forms of listing: 13 representative works have been taken up in A1 with special care for giving references in the comments. In return, A2.1 aims at providing a reasonable large number of composer's names. A2.2 about anthologies/series/collections supplements.

E-H list WRITINGS, books and articles. They can deal with both music works with space for improvisation and with free improvisation practise.

Central is G which has the ambition of providing an adequate representation of the ideas and the documentation material existing around new improvised music. One section lists periodicals. Others seek to classify into surveys, specific themes, a few often mentioned authors, philosophy and related, psychology and finally a residual category with "miscellaneous" - for those writings that did not fit into the other ones.

G is supplemented by some important adjacent categories: on notation as a special study (Category E), music education as a field overlapping music works (F), literature on music history, selectively treated with a view to what is directly relevant (H1) and literature from music therapy (H3) where psychological viewpoints come forward.

I-L, OTHER, deals for a great part with that which has not been printed on paper, also with exhibitions and material related to them. ⁽⁵⁾

I provides some examples of recordings. J can introduce the reader to internet ressources. K accounts for a tradition of making notation exhibitions, aiming at the general public.

Whenever reference is made in thext to an entry it is done with the author's last name followed by (year in parentesis; signature in case the context does not make it clear). Recordings are, however, mentioned by sale title instead of last name, and for the small category J the relevant sub-category only is mentioned. Each signature has its own appendix in the last part of the text with a list.

Those who need a shortlist of recommended writings will find it in appendix M.

VARIABLE WORKS AND AURAL SCORES. EDITIONS OR PUBLISHED? CATEGORIES A-D

The criterion for being included here for works is that they must provide freedom for the performer for independent activity. New notation forms must play an essential role, not just add details to a composition which has chiefly been composed the traditional way, or variability must be extensive. ⁽⁶⁾ Works solely providing guidelines to performers concerning the making of their own written-out versions have not been considered (Ladislav Kupkovic and Klarenz Barlow are examples of composers of such works).

Those who wish to acquire basic orientation in this field can look through Brindle (1975/1986;H1) which, in addition to providing many examples also gives good historical orientation. Gieseler (1975;H1) can be recommended as a comprehensive "picture book", quoting many kinds of notations. Karkoschka (1966;E1) examines closely a nice selection of notations. Other than this, it is recommended to the extent possible to look through libraries' collections for work editions and other literature (use the checklist A2.1). - And in order to get an impression of what free improvisation is like, one can look for recordings under I2 and for sound file quotes and concerts on the Internet - and/or plunge into one's own experiences.

One can very well improvise without notes or arrangements of any kind. But in the written tradition of recipes and fremeworks which are not, like traditional composition, a pre-arranged text, lie also some valuable insights into the musical language. This can inspire to trying out previously made recipes, to the creation of new ones and to sharpening musical attention also during improvisation in a music therapy ocntext and during improvisation with no arrangements at all.

The figure below shows the relation between classifications A, B, C and D - describing a scale from unpublished to independently published for works and aural scores. The relative size of each section stand for its supposed volume.

A: Editions

B: Having been published in extenso (=completely), but not as independent editions

C: Parts of which have been quoted in publications

D: Unpublished

EDITIONS. CATEGORY A.

Clearly, editions are in several ways the best form. They guarantee that the material has been completed and that relevant comments etc. have been added. The works can be searched by composer and title, and they are sold in special shops.

Appendix A1 is a short list (alfabetically arranged) of some important, foreign works/collections, stressing representativity and craftmanship in a music history context. It intends to provide examples of some of the most essential types of works, and it also gives priority to some historically basic works and to the quality of their elaboration.

Instead of giving a comprehensive list of foreign works I have limited myself to that which is strategic. A2 is a checklist of names, seeking to be comprehensive in this aspect, which can be used, for instance, if one would like to see what is a library's capacity in this field. - There are not many birth years after 1940. See, however, the next chapter on the categories B and C and the reduced visibility of this area since the seventies due to fall of interest among the publishers.

A2.2 is a list of anthologies and series - to have many works at one place can have a great practical significance. Johnson (1981) is big and versatile with many types of works and notation - one could wish for a European counterpart to this. However, the Europeans have contributed with publisher's series which are weighty indeed - besides the concert music in category A, see also the educational section F3 as well as F1.1 with collections of exercises. Cage (1969) was to a lesser degree made with a view to practical use, but it presents a large and colourful cavalcade. Bosseur (1997) is a composer having verbal notation as a speciality, and this anthology gathers together a large number of works written over the years.

A3 and A4 aim at being complete lists. A3, Danish editions, concentrates especially around one publisher, The Society for the Publication of Danish Music. A marked exception is Bent Lorentzen who, in contrast to Niels Viggo Bentzon had a "breakthrough" into publication of a number of works with new notations at Wilhelm Hansen (see, however, also the category D2). The fact that The Society for the Publication of Danish Music has a strong foothold concerning new notation forms is related to the so-called "manuscript series" with its "print-on-demand" way of publishing which does not impose heavy demands on the budget of an edition. This form of publishing existed since the seventies; even earlier, the Swedish started to do so, and their arrangement still exists - see Swedish Music Information Center (J1.1). - The category A4 is an exclusive one even if dealing with both Danish and foreign, and maybe ideas for new publications could arise from considering this fact. It contains aural scores ⁽⁷⁾ mostly of electronic music. They can be both exact and analytical or of a more suggesting kind for educational purposes. The aural scores of Stockhausen and Wehinger are often quoted.

PUBLISHED. CATEGORIES B and C.

But, as the triangular figure above suggests, there is more material than that which exists in independent editions. The big publishers had an interest in publishing differently notated music in the sixties and seventies when experiments with notation was a dominating tendency. After this, as dominant tendencies became more retrospective, the number of publications strongly decreased. In this way, a "minimum percentage rule" was virtually introduced which made the work which was nevertheless carried out less visible.

Other than this, works may be sold out from the publisher, they can be difficult or impossible to acquire through usual channels even if they are for sale, high pricing can be an obstacle or, as a final possibility, the dissimination in quoted form may exceed the dissimination as an independent edition and begin to take on a life of its own. ⁽⁸⁾

Due to the "minimum percentage" problem and other problems it is even more interesting that works have been published in their entirety without this being as an independent music edition - category B. Often, these works do not take up very much space - in many cases this is so with differently notated works. With some browsing and investigating around one will in this and the following category have an essential supplement to the works published in the composer's own name. Probably the works will here appear with less commenting than would have else been the case. Those who study and maybe play it are then to interpret independently where nescessary.

As one can see, some works by students from Aalborg University have become accessible in this way. It is also through this channel that the public could catch a glimpse of this form of activity with Danish composers like Bent Lorentzen, Niels Viggo Bentzon og Hanne Ørvad during recent decades - this happened for the last two mentioned thanks to minor Danish newspapers! Even recent works of the American classic Brown (Brown 1994,1995;B3) must be sought after in CD booklets - since they ocntain no references to a publisher one can suspect that there is no such instance. Keller is just one example of a composer of elaborate and different improvisation works who lead a similar humble life.

Now turning to works only quoted partly in publications - category C - it seems that the quantity increases. Gieseler's music history bog (Gieseler 1975;H1) can thus be credited of drawing on a variety of unpublished material. Anthony Braxton is remarkable as a well-known composer with many CD releases, the music of whom does not seem at all to have been published in an independent written form. Here we have the special situation that a comprehensive material comprising several volumes has been published which quotes from them! See Braxton (1996;C2), also Wilson (1988;C2) Heffley (1996;C2) and Lock (1990;C2).

EXISTING BUT NOT PUBLISHED. CATEGORY D.

It is consistent with earlier assertions made here that I will now suggest that among unpublished works which have never been quoted in public there exists essential and even influential productions - category D. Two of the most well-known Danish composers exemplify this:

Niels Viggo Bentzon's contributions to Danish music life is to a high degree based on his special, individual mixture of traditional and Fluxus-like elements. During the sixties his work with this attracted wide interest also outside music circles as such, and in Danish media he became simply a symbol of avantgarde tendencies in music during the subsequent decades. Despite of all this, none of the compositions which concretely document his work with this are available in a published, written form. It is to be suspected that this has had serious consequences for which works have been played after their first performance and adopted into musicians' repertories. Here, however, as probably in a number of other cases, the publisher keeps material available to those interested - Appendix D2 describes a selection of such works by Bentzon with new notations. ⁽⁹⁾

Per Nørgård developed his own improvisation practise during the seventies based on written, short model compositions over which the performers made variations. This practise was carried on by Hans Gefors at the Music School of Holstebro. Recently, a program from a Danish free high school shows that Nørgård is still cultivating this practise (Toftdahl 1999;H4). A publication around this, specialising in the rhythmic dimension only and using drums, Hansen (1999;F1.1), was published shortly before the old century was over - after approx. 25 years!

In this practise, the infinite row (a Fibonacci-based series) was given the appearance of a way of writing utilising a number of parts which were all variants over the same principle, but with different pitch range and tempo - cf. works like 2. symphony and others in which this is displayed in a clear form. Additional composers could contritute with more parts. The movement was repeated in cycles, and players could and were also supposed to vary the music gradually, normally without adding more tones to the written basis, but, rather, by means of their own phrasing and accentuations - and by means of the important "principle of the Swiss Cheese". That means, to make pauses, in the service of phrasing and also in order to develop new structures in the music seen as a whole. Musicians were also free to alternate between the various parts and their styles. This is the improvisation practise Nørgård (1977;G2.1) describes - Hansen deals solely with the rhythmic aspect and with percussion, while the melodic aspect is not the subject of the book. ⁽¹⁰⁾

Unpublished works, as we saw in the instance of Niels Viggo Bentzon, can appear in a "latent" form of publication, available on request from a publisher - and unpublished works can even be dissiminated in printed form. The postcard-compositions by Fuzzy, Henrik Colding-Jørgensen, Jørgen Lekfeldt and Jørgen Plaetner which were published as a private publication by Danish Composer's Society in 1992 on the occasion of one of the concerts of Composer's Biennale, have each been printed in 1000 copies.

In the following examples the playing material is unpublished whereas the music has been released on LP and CD:

The American composer John Zorn who is also well-known as an improvisor in many countries wrote so-called "game-pieces" the study and practise of which has become a "cult", as an expression of the nineties has it. They are ingenious games with rules. Zorn's inspirations for this were team sports and so-called war games (as far as I understand a form of computer-based games). The idea of music as a game with rules as known for instance from Chr. Wolff, is thus carried on here on new grounds. ⁽¹¹⁾

English composer and improvising musician Steve Beresford carries such principles on in his composition "Fish of the Week" (1993) which, similarily to the pieces of Zorn, takes place over some time - here approx. an hour. Music by Zorn as well as by Beresford of this kind has been released on PL and CD, ⁽¹²⁾ but the written material is only known in narrow circles. According to a message dated 1998 from the publisher (Hips Road Edition), a printed edition of the Cobra game piece is on its way. But, remarkably, only after the publication of a number of other much less famous pieces. ⁽¹³⁾

English Bisset (1997;G2.1) mentions in a small print for circulation on London Electric Guitar Orchestra also Zorn as one of the sources of inspiration.

In certain cases it may be adaequate that works are not published - the composer can regard them as being bound to their context and to a personal presentation. ⁽¹⁴⁾

But market considerations are probably the most serious obstacle. For composers outside of classic music and traditions of fine art this problem might assume an almost absolute character, while publishers connected to these traditions may sometimes accept taking some risks. ⁽¹⁵⁾

From Jost (1984;G1.1) one can gain insight into "Graphiken, verbale Konzepte, Ablaufpläne" [graphics, verbal introductions, process recipes] produced by members of Globe Unity Orchestra in the seventies. Kumpf (1984;G5)) and Noll (1977;G5) also quote notations including ones by well-known free jazz musicians. ⁽¹⁶⁾

As a conclusion to this examination it can be said that there has clearly been more activity than appears from independent publications alone, as we could see from the prominent examples Bentzon, Nørgård, Zorn and Braxton. In the historical process, a number of composers have since then, outside of the attention of media and publishers, worked slowly and seriously on with those phenomena which were brought forward by emancipative tendencies in the sixties and on.

WRITINGS. CATEGORIES E-H.

NOTATION. CATEGORY E

There is a well-known and widespread literature on new notations, but to a great part this deals with expansions and additions to traditional scores, rather with the radical alternatives. Such a catalogue-like approach examines symbols one by one taken out of their work context as well as out of their historical context, and they disregard the original notations as totalities. Despite of such shortcomings, Karkoschka (1966;E1) provides, however, also a broad and thorough examination of many important examples, in addition to the catalogue-like approach prevailing in the rest of the book. Stone (1980;E1), Risatti (1975;E1) og Cope (1976;E1), however, do not at all look beyond the catalogue approach ⁽¹⁷⁾.

Confronted with this state of affairs one must bring forward the point of view expressed by Sylvia Smith (J1.1, see the appendix text), curator for one of what has become a large number of exhibitions with new notations, that art is here to enrichen human consciousness and that excessive standardisation limits its possiblities for doing this. And as both Smith (J1.1) and Hambræus (1970;E1) note, "traditionel notation" is certainly not one thing, but consists of different forms developed through different periods to serve quite different ends. Standardisation has always had its limits somewhere. Bosseur (1993;E1) points to the multitude of sounding possibilities in new music and ask whether any one way to communicate it can really be satisfactory:

"The vocabulary of sound is now limitless, to our greater benefit today; can it then accomodate a system of writing to be shared by all, a standardized "sheet music"? Can the variability of implications springing from the sound phenomenen - a variability we can actively live, as soon as we decide to cast aside the restrictive dogma and the prohibitions of schooled music - be matched by anything other than a plurality of models of transmission?" (s. 25)

- and he characterises some of those differences which may nescessitate different notations from one work to another:

"...the musician's debate does not simply revolve around the distance to be taken from the norms of traditional notation: it is a question of rethinking, for each score, the level of information and the mode of communication to be brought into play, as a function of the specific properties of each project." (p. 26)

The catalogue approach is a-historic and alienates the study of notation from the study of music history. Obviously, this has a pragmatic background in a need for convenient reference books. That does, however, not render such a one-sidedness more acceptable towards music as an art form. Exactly the study of music history, which is practised in other contexts within the same institutions that use the books, yields a perspective of how creative activity has flourished in quite different appearances under different societal and cultural conditions. Insight in this can build up trust in new artistic solutions being found, even if seemingly established principles are challenged. ⁽¹⁸⁾

A different and less pragmatically narrow kind of view certainly also exists, contrasting to the eclectical catalogue approach: the examination of different composers' approaches and the putting them into a historical perspective. This approach does not ignore the fact that several kinds of aims with notations exist, and consequently a number of works are studied in their entirety. Writings of this kind are Bosseur (1993;E1), Brunner et al. (1974;E1), Davies (1986A;E1), Gieseler (1978;E1), Karkoschka (1975 I-II;E1) and Roschitz (1967;E1), as well as the chapter "Beispiele..." in Karkoschka (1966;E1) mentioned above. Hambræus (1970;E1) can also be mentioned here, and this book deals also generally with notation in its historical development.

The subject of notation overlaps with visual art, and this has inspired some large illustrated books, Motte (1990;E1) and Maur (1985;E1). Bosseur (1993;E1) deals with some multimedia- and intermedia-aspects.

Reading about new notations inevitably leads to the study of the notations and their details as a predominant activity. Apart from the pictorial elements having an immediate aesthetic interest, many of the writings in category E can serve as material giving inspiration to musicians, composers and creators of aural scores, for their own new works. I found Gieseler (1975;H1) to be next to unsurpassed in this respect, even if notation is not the text's primary concern. Here, reference must also be made to indispensable, illustrated music history books like Brindle (1975/1986;H1), Maegaard (1964/1971;H1) and Sutherland (1994;H1). Logothetis (1972;E1) was placed in E1 being the only presentation of one composer's notational system and thoughts about in book form, while various articles by the same writer appear under E2.

Amidst all the views and thoughts about notation, Kowal (1971;E1) provides a remarkable example of very fundamental empirical work. He asks the question, which practical ends do different notation forms serve best - and answers the question with a concrete analysis. This is an approach in the literature so rare that the article must be characterised as a pioneering work, and it ought to inspire a number of further studies. The fact that elementary characterisation of notation forms and their practical evaluation is so absent in the literature must be seen in relation to the peculiar tendendy to deal with the subject in a fragmented way commented upon earlier.

One more instructive treatment of such general notation comparison is to be found in Maegaard, p.119f (H1; 1964/1971). He states the first two measures of Stockhausen's Klavierstück 1 both in the original metric notation and in an exact optic notation and provides an illuminating discussion of pros and cons of each.

Category E2 includes writings on single composers, writings with theoretical considerations, my own works on the Danish development and about the important notation form consisting of using words which I have found no other works dealing with in depth. Runswick (1996;E2) is a composer's account for his notational system used in several works - maybe it could be a good idea for others to write such accounts? Hagvet (1988;H4) suggests how one can apply a psychological view to the human development of writing practise, and this also sheds light on the way the writing is perceived and how it functions as a means of expression and communication. It can also be mentioned that Cardew (1971;G3), in a different context, remarks on the fundamental justification for employing notation that it allows others to have more advanced experiences than were otherwise the case. Thus, a child of a certain age can play music by Beethoven, even if could only have been composed by an adult. (p.xix). For Brown, Logothetis and Haubenstock-Ramati as composers, notation have been a prime concern. Brown (1965) mentions a pragmatic reason why Americans were the first to employ framework-like notations and did this in the boldest way: the short rehearsing time due to economic limitation did not allow for rehearsing complex works notated in great detail.

E3a-E3e are consecutive contributions to a Danish debate ⁽¹⁹⁾ which touched upon some important problems concerning notation of new music: on one hand the closed nature of traditional notation, on the other the dangers of misunderstanding presented by open notation forms.

PRACTICALLY AND DIDACTICALLY ORIENTED LITERATURE, INCLUDING COLLECTIONS OF EXERCISES. CATEGORY F.

Inventing and arranging exercises for musicians is in my experience an activity very similar to composition, it's just the context being different. John Stevens preferred the word "pieces" instead ⁽²⁰⁾, even within a clearly educational context.

The target groups in the category F extend from Kindergarten age to adults, from amateurs who are absolute beginners to professional musicians, and from instrumental schools to exercises for general use. Canadian Murray Schafer who is especially known for his interest in soundscapes, improvising musician Vinko Globokar living in France, the German pioneering music educators Lilli Friedemann and Gertrud Meyer-Denkmann, and the jazz- and improvising musician Stevens and music educator Paynter, both English, are some important international names in this field. Musician and composer Michael Vetter (Germany) and composer, musician and workshop leader Pauline Oliveros (USA), both work especially with the meditative dimension. The exercise collections of Globokar and Spahlinger are extensive, and their background in compositional training result in some very thorough and varied treatments of musical material, the playing situation and interaction between players. Hansen (1988; A4) combines electronic specially made compositions by various Danish composers with open spaces for the children's own productions. Ford (1995;F2) is a pioneer of improvisation teaching for university students as a general form of communication training. The anthology Reimers (1970; F2) is the sole listed writing which can serve as an introduction to several educationists and their methods. Paynter, Meyer-Denkmann, Friedemann, Schafer and those publishers' series mentioned under F3 are mentioned in this book, and excerpts from some of their works are quoted. To compare and to summarise could be a relevant task for a writer interested in music education, maybe a student writing a final paper or PhD! - Other than this, see, as ever, the comments in the single entries.

WRITINGS ABOUT IMPROVISED MUSIC. CATEGORY G.

Writings dealing specifically with improvisation as a stage in a working process leading to a result being wholly fixed in traditional notation have not been included here.

IMPROVISATION/GENERAL SURVEYS AND GENERAL HISTORY - CATEGORY G1.1

The word improvisation can signify many different things. The standard work Bailey (1992) points to exactly this multitude and its subject matter includes traditional classical organ improvisation, Indian Raga music, Flamenco, several kinds of Western popular music and free improvisation. Having background in free improvisation himself, Bailey provides a good characterisation of this "non-idiomatic" music, an expression from the book which has become well-known among improvising musicians. Another concise expression from the book is the twin concept of "instrumentalist/anti-instrumentalist".

Danish Goldstein og Korgaard (1994) also deal well with the multitude in their overview and summary from various sources.

A number of writings follow broadly the development of improvised music with a basis in specific genres. Even if Couldry (1995) deals solely with English music, his historical considerations and his documentation are thorough and interesting, and original thoughts about virtuosity and collective ways of playing are brought forward. Frisius (1996) traces the development in classical music and describes also the recent development well. Levaillant (1981) describes predominantly a number of French phenomena and their relation to both jazz and new music. Dean (1992) takes his starting-point in jazz after 1960. Jost (1987) provides a broad account of personalities in Euopean jazz of which many are also well-known within improvised music. Some of the various writings of Ferand date back before 1945 but provide good information on the many appearances of improvisation in the long history of classical music - a subject on which some writings have also been included in G5 - and they provide analytical viewpoints that could also be employed to later music.

Free improvisation became widespread as the result of a historical development in which experiences from different genrers have been exchanged between musicians and in which the divisions between genrers have been broken down; instead, the concept of improvised music or free improvisation has arisen as a genre in its own right. Noglik (1990A and 1990B) describes among other things how European jazz played an especially strategic role as a background for this. How experiences from different genres have been fused he sought to describe concisely in the thesis he put forward in a lecture, ⁽²¹⁾ saying that the aspect of "sound [or: timbral] research" in freely improvised music comes from the tradition of composed new music, the "interactive" aspect comes from jazz. In Bergstrøm-Nielsen (1994) a rudimentary division of phases of the development of improvised usic is sketched out. Poulsen (1997/98) describes a number og contexts in thich improvised music solves problems and thus is of an essential current interest. Fell (1999?) puts forward the concise distinction between "invasive" and "non-invasive composition" for improvising musicians, a distinction well fit for discussions.

Hamm (1975) and Belgrad (1998) outline general society characteristics and cultural tendencies in USA being the immediate background for the often earlier development of experimental music here, compared to Europe.

The books by Feisst (1997) and Müller (1994) take their basis in musical analysis. They are indispensable for future analyses going into depth [at least, for those who can read German] - both are academic works on a high level which after several decades of confusion and discussions being fixed to details and to local issues contribute to greater breadth of view and to greater conciseness of concepts. Feisst uncovers the conceptual context of and the many views concerning improvisation with composers and describes closely their practice examining a large and broad selection of examples. Müller lets a number of well-chosen examples contrast each other sharply and, in so doing, he leads the way to a nescessary new musicological dealing with performance practise, examining the various forms in which composition and interpretation overlap each other in recent music in which improvisation plays a role. Interpretation can no longer be put aside as less important than compositional method and reception, he states.

Wilson (1999) also describes characteristic aspects of the special performance practise of improvised music, more seen from the free practise. Here, notation and electronic/instrumental techniques are dealt with. Fell (1999) classifies various forms of composition from the point of view of the improvising musician, "invasive" and "non-invasive".

IMPROVISATION/PERIODICALS - CATEGORY G1.2

New improvisation forms are relative sparsely represented in magazines, but nevertheless the list G1.2, magazines dealing thoroughly with improvised music, can be stated. Of course, more magazines exist in which relevant material can be found - see G1.3.

Thomas (1998) also divide magazines into specialised ones and broadly orientated ones, and the broadly orientated ones seem to dominate for the time being. This makes exchange of news in this special area more difficult - access to debate, theoretical articles, reviews, concert calendars and current advertising of record labels strengthen this area of music life especially when appearing in a certain quantity and currently. Several important magazines (The Improvisor, Hurly Burly, Rubberneck, Gränslöst) have stopped lately, at least in paper form for the three first mentioned. On the other hand, the internet yields generally new possibilities.

IMPROVISATION/DOCUMENTATION, REPORTS AND DISCUSSION CONCERNING SPECIFIC IMPROVISORS, GROUPS, WORKS, TENDENCIES, THEMES - CATEGORY G2.1

Here, we go more into details - including material which has not ceased to raise interesting, general questions.

Around the time of experimentation within composed new music from the end of the sixties till somewhere in the seventies there are a number of very well-formulated contributions. Often, composers took initiative to the formation of improvising groups. Evangelisti (1966) describes the immediate background in tendencies within composed music in which mbore decisions were presented to the performer than before. Globokar (1971) also speaks from the viewpoint of composition and he sees a challenge in a greater creative participation from the musician. Both composition professor Karkoschka (1971) and composer / musician Globokar remark that a number of improvising groups do not primarily play "for music's own sake*" but also for social reasons - something which can be seen in relation to the general emancipative tendencies of the time. This situation was the direct background for the coming into being of recent, improvisation based music therapy. Karkoschka (1971) distinguish so between possible motivations: "artistic, aesthetical; meditative, religious; educational; therapeutical; social getting to know each other, communication; express oneself. Find one's own - also collective - identity - ; political, revolutionary". In this connection mention can also be made of Andreani (1972;H4), an article reflecting the critical spirit of its time, looking critically at the "esoteric" aspect of classical composition and seeing improvisation as one of the ways to get beyond this. By its language, Stumme (1973) also bears witness of the atmosphere of this time. Burde (1975) signalises few years later a different climate for the tendency which the Germans call "improvisation movement" - and later on, Globokar (1993), assures the reader, like the present author, that experimental tendencies continue, even if the spotlight from the media has disappeared.

Free group improvisation belong to the major social and musical innovations in music. Socially seen it transcends among other things the norms saying that art is supposed to be created by one individual, that musicians subordinate to the more or less exact prescriptions from the composer (this norm was especially strict within art music), and that known forms of education and training are prerequisites for creating. Musically, it investigates (thus Karkoschka (1971), Keller (1973), Hellhund (1995;G3) and Meyer (1994:E2)) timbre and processes in time, which notation, being fixed to pitches and countable rhythms, has suppressed. This development was preceded by, among other things, the noise-instruments of the futurists and by electronic music. One can perceive this music more holistically as sound. Brown (1966) describes at an early time his vision of the musical space as a widening out of the perspective, at the same time musical and social, a departure from the simplification and one-dimensionality of earlier times. Globokar also views composition seeking to fix everything as inadequate despite its creative aspects, since creative collaboration may stay away - Globokar (1971, s. 62).

The music professor Carl Dahlhaus at Berlin University was a prominent sceptic of his day (Dahlhaus 1973;G3 and 1979;G3). In the debate about improvisation he sought to convince his readers that the parameter of timbre in music is less important than pitches, and he viewed improvisation, being bound to the moment and to the situation, as a provocation against the concept of the musical work and against compositional reflection over the music's tradition.

In composed European avantgarde music of the fifthies, traditional haronic, melodic structures and structures beloning to other traditional ways of writing were deconstructed into a "network" of serial construction. This could result in a "pointillistic" music, concentrating on the single sounds which could stand out with their individualities. The situation was similar to that in the works by Webern from the forties, but it was a freer application of the principle, without regular metre and taking place in many possible layers of tempo.

It is a remarkable historical coincidence that the same pointillistic phenomena appears in English improvised music some time later ⁽²²⁾ - the German musician Peter Brötzmann nemed it the "English syndrom" [untranslatable play of words - this expression mean rickets in both German and Danish] (Wilson 1999;G2.1). In return, English musicians could perceive Brötzmann's playing like this - Wilson (1999;G1.1) p. 37: "Als "teutonisch" empfanden britische Improvisatioren die massiven Klangsalven eines Peter Brötzmann...Die britische Improvisationsmusik hingegen, wie sie Musiker wie Derek Bailey, John Stevens, Evan Parker, Tony Oxleypraktizierten, vielfach verhaltener, fragiler, transparenter, fragmentierter, weniger direkt emotional" ["British improvisors perceived the massive sound bursts of a Peter Brötzmann as "Teutonic"... British improvised music, on the other hand, as practised by Derek Bailey, John Stevens, Evan Parker, Tony Oxley much restrained, fragile, transparent, fragmented, less direct emotional"]. - The different answers to the enquete in Atton (1988 and 1988-89;G5) suggest, speaking of a related issue, to which extent British musicians perceived a special common identity in their music. Cf. also Munthe (1990;G2.1) on this issue more generally.

It's a peculiar fact of history that some of the pioneers of the pointillistic way of playing, Paul Rutherford, John Stevens and Trevor Watts were together in Cologne, stationed by Royal Air Force in the years 1958/59. However, according to Smith (1998) they listened to American jazz, and they only heard the composed music later according to Rutherford. According to Watts (2002;G2.1) there was no direct connection, and their own new way of playing developed only later, like in Spontaneous Music Ensemble from 1966 in which John Stevens' inspiration from Webern became important. So the emanicipation of the individual sound came about independently of each other in both European serialist composed music of the fifthies and in English and European improvised music in the sixties. In improvised music, pointillistic playing assumes a new function to an important degree, and this is related to the "group voice"-way of playing, Couldry (1995;G1.1) describes. It's also a curious fact that also Tony Oxley, Evan Parker, Günter Christmann, Derek Bailey and more musicians are known to have taken direct inspiration from Anton Webern - Wilson examines this in detail in (1999;G1.1 p.37ff) and mentions it also in (1999;G2.1) - but not from the contemporary phenomena which were musically closer to them. Concerning other appearances of pointillistic playing one could point to American music by Cage and Feldman in the early fifthies, which did not have any direct consequences for improvisors either, as it seems - even if the music philosophy of Cage has with certainty inspired improvisors - Wilson (1991;G5)). Bop-music from the forties, with its use of staccato and rests in phrasing, must also be reminded of here, and I have found no allusions to that either, nonwithstanding the fact that many musicians probably have this repertory "under their skin".

Free improvisation often takes place in ensembles of three or more musicians, but both solo and large ensembles exist - large ensembles are dealt with in Pfleiderer (1999).

Other groupings in the list are writings around jazz (Jost 1974 and 1984, Wagner 1993). Laskin (1991), Childs (1982-83) and Gunden (1983) provides a few hints about the American scene; Whitehead (1998) provides material on the Dutch one.

As important individual phenomena in England, the Scratch Orchestra occurs among others (see Cardew 1974, Nyman (1974;H4) and Parsons 1994 as well as Parsons 1994;A2.2). Anonymous (1981), Bell (1982 og 1987), Toop (1978 og 1993), Leigh (1994) and Appendix L suggest an area which deserves more history writing antyder et område som kunne fortjene mere historieskrivning, the development of London Musician's Collective and other groupings in London from the seventies and on; Bell (2000;G2.1) provides the most comprehensive summary seen till now.

Biswurm (1999) takes a step in the direction of making an overview of the various relevant festivals. There are many more than mentioned by him, and of course the picture is ever changing. A related subject could be musicians' organisations and their activity, an area on which there seems to be no written literature apart from what was mentioned above on such manifestations in London. However, reference can be made to the internet concerning this.

The intuitive music of Stockhausen, Earl Brown's famous "December 52", John Zorn's "game pieces" and Chr. Wolff have their own categories, see below.

IMPROVISATION/STOCKHAUSEN: CATEGORY G2.2

On the collections of text notated music, Stockhausen (1968 og 1970;A1) there are a number of program notes, original texts, interview, comments from musicians who know them and analysis. Stockhausen (1993A) is almost a re-edition of the original texts of the collections.

Maconie (1991) provides a good discussion of selected pieces by Stockhausen himself. Stockhausen (1978 or 1993B) is an essential original text which opens a perspective in taking up critical comments from an audience.

Even among new music specialists the knowledge of the actual contents of the collections can be limited. Maconie (1976) provides background and analytical comments in a relatively short form. Kohl (1978) and Bergstrøm-Nielsen (1997) provide analytical examinations in length. Müller (1997) and Hopp (1998) analytically examine the works Plus-Minus and Kurzwellen.

IMPROVISATION/ZORN: CATEGORY G2.3

"Game Pieces" from 1984f illustrate a relatively recent development for which the pluralism previously described by Globokar has become a central feature:

"To begin with, this improvised music sounds like "contemporary music" when all those present employ a "contemporary music language"... When, incidentially, someone turns up who has only played jazz or Indian music, the result changes fundamentally. It becomes a peculiar and unbalanced mixture of two worlds. Let me add immediately that the unbalanced aspect is not nescessarily a negative factor" (Globokar (1972;G2.1) transl. by CBN. See also concerning this Stanyek (1999;G3) and Keller (1973;G3)).

By continuing the practise of composing with roles based on contrast or similarity between musicians (see Globokar 1970;G2.1) Zorn can be said to be a younger heir to the ideas of Globokar and to carry out this work on a new basis, mixing of the genres having grown a more natural background for this activity during the eighties. The list includes a number of interviews and short writings. In Wilson (1999A;G3), "Game pieces" are placed into a larger perspective, taking also Chr. Wolff into account.

IMPROVISATION/BROWN: DECEMBER 1952 - CATEGORY G2.4. A SPECIAL STUDY

This work with its characteristic picture of vertical and horisontal rectangles of different thickness which are hanging in the air as it were, is probably the most quoted graphical music work at all. The performance instructions are, however, only known to relatively small circles, and there is much confusion as to how to understand it. Since a coherent presentation of the work, its background and context which also takes into account the history of how the work was perceived seems not yet to have been written, it appeared to me as a good idea to do it here.

First some dry facts about "December 1952": Original publishers were Associated Music Publishers, cop. 1961 and the joint title was "Folio and 4 Systems". Large format, approx. A3, possibly folio. AMP is controlled by Music Sales Ltd., 8-9 Frith Street, London W1 V 5TZ, according to letter from British Library, see the note under "PUBLISHED. CATEGORIES B AND C",page 11. Complete original title: "December 1952 for one or more instruments and/or sound-producing media".

The published music includes a written introduction and performance instruction in which the first quotation p. 59 from Brown (1966;G2.1) (with hanging indention) and the "space diagram" also described there appears, dealing with the basic idea of the work. Both are quoted by Müller (1994;G1.1), p. 205. As a concrete performance instruction it says further: "The composition may be performed in any direction from any point in the defined space for any length of time and may be performed from any of the four rotational positions in any sequence. In a performance utilizing only three dimensions as active (vertical, horizontal, and time), the thickness of the event indicates the relative intensity and/or (where applicable instrumentally) clusters. Where all four dimensions are active, the relative thickness and length of events are functions of their conceptual position on a plane perpendicucular to the vertical and horizontal plane of the score. In the latter case all of the characteristics of sound and their relationships to each other are subject to continual transformation and modification. It is primarily intended that performances be made directly from this graphic "implication" (one for each performer) and that no further preliminary defining of the events, other than agreements to total performance time, take place. Further defining of the events is not prohibited however, provided that the imposed determinate system is implicit in the score and in these notes" ⁽²³⁾.

If one compares this quotation to the first mentioned one and of course to the graphic picture itself, one should have reasonable information about how to play the piece. As I understand the instruction, one must in all cases read the picture in a freely chosen, yet systematic manner, letting up and down on the paper correspond to pitch and letting thickness correspond to dynamics, maybe to clusters on keyed instruments. An advanced way is to imagine the picture or the player in motion so that the relative position of elements to each other change. It is essential that the elements are perceived as single elements which are in principle exactly defined, and performance should first and foremost take place directly from playing the picture, with only principles, not details being fixed in advance.

Bosseur (1993;E1) provides (p.15ff) a good and instructive introduction to the idea of the notation, taking as his starting-point the individuality of elements and the dependence on their context they consequently acquire, and he continues by accounting for the endeavours of Brown towards making the notation ambigous.

Recent information about how the piece was composed show that exactly the systematic and exact aspect was important. Brown was inspired by the mathematician Schillinger (Rötter p.5 quoted by Müller p.202). He states in an interview from 1995: "Do you know how December was made? It was produced by using random sampling tables of numbers. I wanted to activate only three parameters - relative frequency, relative loudness, relative duration" (Ryan 1997;H4, here quoted from the original English manuscript).

Through the mobiles of Calder Brown was inspired by the idea about the open space which can be seen as a metapher for the possible transformation of sound in all dimensions. The piece may look like a mobile. With some formulations by Müller, one can perceive the picture like a photography of the space within a movable cube, and the interpreter is to recreate the movement in sound. On can, nowever, also choose a more static version, corresponding more to the "photo" ("a performance using only tree dimensions as active" in the performance instructions). The idea of a space and the openness in performance which can be seen as a consequence of this, "conceptional mobility" as Brown calls it in the edition, has been brilliantly described by him in (1966;G2.1).

Müller deals with backgrounds, the context of Brown's compositional universe (which comprised all degrees of precision in the writing), he scrutinizes the performance instructions and comments upon that which he with a concise formulation sees as Brown's implicit "Theory of improvisation" - seeing improvisation as expanding the possibilities of composition, making it more differentiated by adding things which could not be notated, either because suitable symbols did not exist or because a sufficient differentiation was not practicable. December 1952 was an extreme case for Brown with a maximum of openness. If he were to go beyond that, he would have had to give performers blank pages, he says (Bailey 1992;G1.1 p.62). The performance instructions deal with the exact reading of the elements in the manner of a coordinate system as basic: pitches for up/down, thickness for dynamics and time horizontally. If one conceives of the figure in motion this gets more complicated, yet there is no dispensation for being careful in the interpretation. When Müller says about the analogy to spatial movement that it is "just" a "help to understanding" ('lediglich', p. 206) it is relevant to add that such help is not at all "just". However, Kontarsky (1965;E2 p.94) who is an expert performer of new music, alleges, even with explicit reference to the performance instructions, that "the drawing is not at all to be understood as a basis for a structurally comparable musical version, but it is intended to stimulate the player or the players to make an improvisation of any kind" ⁽²⁴⁾.

Even though it is my opinion that Müller and Kontarsky over-emphasise the work's "improvisation educational" aspect and neglect the methodical aspect in the performance instructions, the differing of their attitudes to those of the present author and Metzger, as well as to that of Richards (1992;G5 p. 58) as far as my perception of his statement go about "helpful rules from the composer" and that of Bosseur (1993;E1) demonstrate that the instructions have not been understood in the same way even by specialists who have studied them ⁽²⁵⁾.

If we now turn to look at performance practise around Brown's own performances, new aspects are added. The work received much attention in 1964 at the summer courses in Darmstadt, where Brown distributed the graphic picture to musicians and acted as a conductor at a performance of it. Several of those present report that the music did not seem to match the simplicity of the picture: "the performance contained trills, glissandi, crescendi and even all kinds of solo licks which could not have been derived with even the best of intentions from the scanty design on the page" (Aloys Kontarsky quoted by Evan Parker, in Bailey p.81). Karkoschka writes (1966;E1) p. 93 that "wawing processes and very extended crescendi" occurred, as well as the theme from Richard Strauss' Till Eulenspiegel. He has also reported that someone in an subsequent discussion asked Brown why the graphic picture was used when a quite different music was played. Brown answered that this was so in an improvisation and that the graphic picture had an influence at the subconscious level of the performers (Karkoschka 2000A;H4).

It could seem we have now come a certain distance away from what performance instructions say, and maybe one can also wonder at Brown's statement from 1972 "the conductor is 'forming' the improvisation" (Brown 1992;H4 quoted from Feisst (1997;G1.1) p.97). Karkoschka, however, points to the fact that one according to Brown can arrange the paper obliquely. This could well explain why crescendi and glissandi occurred.

However, the explanation is different in this case. Brown saw the composition as determining what the conductor should do, not the individual musician. He has accounted for this in some details in Rötter (1986;G2.4) where he also mentions that the material to be used was exercised through three rehearsals.

The following statement also suggests that Brown as a conductor takes over the artistic resonsibility. With December 1952 this is not the only imaginable method, but it can have been an obvious solution, especially considering the historic moments: "I think of these open-form compositions as being in the hands of the conductor once I've written all the material. The conductor is improvising with the orchestra as the instrument" (Duffalo 1989;H4) p.112 quoted from Feisst p.100). And Brown saw an active, educational effort when working with the musicians as nescessary: "Well, in a certain sense I have to teach improvisation each time I do that piece with different people" (Bailey, p.64) ⁽²⁶⁾.

With a conducted version it will be up to an evaluation of a fundamental kind to determine to which degree "the imposed determinate system is implicit in the score and in these notes", the conducting activity being a "further defining of the events", as performance instructions say - also, how far the "continual transformation and modification" can go which the performance instructions mention as a possibility.

Metzger (1972;H4) reports on preparations to a LP recording taking place later, in 1972. He thinks that Brown acted contrarily to his own rules by limiting which instrumens that could be played and by strongly encouraging the performers to react to each other and develop the material, in addition to letting the conductor Rainer Riehn conduct the ensemble, against his original intention. But nonwithstanding this conflict between composer and conductor one cannot exclude the possibility that the conducting functioned in accordance with the rules.

On closer scrutinity, one can conclude that there are reasons to undertake a "rehabilitation" of Brown from the critique stated at the Darmstadt performance and by Metzger of alleged inconsequence ⁽²⁷⁾.

Clearly, performance instructions do not state that a specific texture must result or that crescendos or the theme from Till Eulenspiegel cannot be part of the process. It seems that two different notions of the piece exist: the one is more traditional and presupposes that there is a text which must correspond to that wich sounds. The other notion is of the piece as a structral idea which can lead to unforeseen results. Such an idea is commonly known from for instance the Variations pieces by Cage which are exactly structural ideas, not texts depicting sequences of sound but formulas capable of generating many different things. The performance instructions do certainly not exclude that December 1952 is perceived in this way. The immediate associative and sound-depicting aspect is not the notation's only one. Seen in this light, objections even appear conservative.

In case the work is conducted, Müllers statement may come true (p.206): "As an introduction to improvisation, the construction and appearance of the graphics becomes of secondary importance, and the idea about performance takes on increased importance. It is less the graphics than the comments from the composer to performance practise that conveys the idea". At the same time, it is clear that performances which more directly represent the graphics also exist ⁽²⁸⁾.

Maybe this doubleness contributed to the fame of the piece: it quickly conveys an atmosphere of a spacious and floating music, a number of essential reflections on musical tradition and innovation lie behind, and at several occasions (Bailey (1992;G1.1) mentions p. 64 at least a third performance with Brown taking part) Brown has used it as initiating improvisation. Each of all these aspects could attract attention in itself, but to include them all in their entirety has been difficult during discussions and for music history writers.

Even the new music specialist Karkoschka (1980;E2) categorises the work in an article as something which can be used for preparation of the music and which does not need to be played directly from, on the basis of Brown's appearance in Darmstadt 1964 (2000B;H4), whereas instructions say that performances should primarily take place directly from the picture. With Griffiths (1995;H4) we have a worse situation, however - he writes that there are "no instructions about how these shapes are to be realized as sound" (p.95) - a statement which could make one wonder whether he has been negligent enough not to check whether a printed edition with instructions existed at all.

A quotation by Brown summarises how December 1952 was a vision about a music capable of assuming different appearances when being brought to life by a performance practise still to be put into realisation: "In 1952 I was convinced that music, our music, was going to move in a certain way which would be more inclusive of flexibility, let us say, and it has moved in that direction" (Bailey p.63).

From the Darmstadt 1964 concert and one of the rehearsals there exists recordings kept at Internationales Musikinstitut Darmastadt (please see list of libraries etc. at the beginning of the appendix-part). On listening, I hear music sounding like composed new music of that time, and the quotation aspect is not especially apparent. Clearly there is variation in dynamics, tempo and in the number of musicians playing at one time. It is furthermore interesting to note that conducted improvisation and the conductor Butch Moris received a good deal of attention in the nineties; the practise of Brown can be seen as a forerunner.

For those who wish to study December 1952, especially Brown's own, classic text (1966;G1.1) is recommended, put into perspective by Müller (1994;G1.1) and of course the published score (Brown 1961;A1). The New York School (1992;J) contains a CD recording; Müller refers to 3 LP recordings. One of those he analyses in detail while additional 2 analysis are of recordings that have not been published. Finally, one more LP recording exists as part of the release mentioned under Metzger (1972;H4).

IMPROVISATION/WOLFF - CATEGORY G2.5

Wolff has created many different innovative notations. The works mentioned here under A1 and A2.2 show a varied selection of them. He became especially known for the "cue"-feature, that is, performers having to wait for each other in order to go on. In this way, the music became based on interdependence between players and thus took an important step away from being a fixed entity, pre-shaped by the composer, while still retaining elements of exactness and precision. In pure cultivation, this principle can be observed in pieces like For 1, 2 or 3 Players (DeLio (1984;G3) - Duet II (Behrmann (1964/65;E2)) and In Between Pieces, all of which receive analytical examinations in the literature - in the last case, there are even two different analyses (Müller (1994;g1.1 - Landy (1991;H4)).

Good presentations of Wolff's music in the context of music history can be found in Wilson (1999;G1.1), Feisst (1997;G1.1), Bosseur (1979;H1) and Sutherland (1994;H1) ⁽²⁹⁾ - all present a number of examples and comment on them.

Gronemeyer and Oehlschlägel (1998) gathers together a large number of articles about Wolff, program notes and other materials, all of which appear in both German and English.

IMPROVISATION/GENERAL PHILOSOPHY, AESTHETICS, MUSIC THEORY AND MUSIC ANAYSIS - CATEGORY G3

A number of improvisors write articles on their music and its meaning. And the interest in writing is not generally confined to academic circles. It appears that creative dealing with the ever changing sound provokes an interest in aesthetics and in philosophical description of the music's qualities ⁽³⁰⁾.

Aesthetic and philosophical view may very well connect to classical concepts, like with Caroll (1996)'s interest in the cyclic phenomenon. The possibilities existing for the listener in music which from the side of the composer has not been fixed in all details are put into a larger perspective of history of philosophy by Toncitch (1970) - the fact that the open-ended, creative process becomes more accessible for the musician and for the listener is viewed as a direct addition to the list of inner states laid down by Aristotle! ⁽³¹⁾

More specifically modern ideas also come up, like for instance Shoup (1996)'s personal reflections on how "reality" may be viewed in a simplified and naive way or in a more complex way. Recent chaos theories in natural science have also left traces (Bratlyn (1988) and Lee (1992)), although in the form of rather general considerations. The thoughts of Nunn (1992) can be said to deal with the point where musician and music meet, and as devising a dialectical brainstorming method aiming at pinning down sources of musical dynamics that could be focused on. Gulda (1971) attacks the one-sidedness of written music culture. Maybe somewhat simplified one could call Prèvost (1975, 1994, 1995) a radical existentialist. He is the author of a regular, large book with personal reflections which does not deal with biographical and anecdotical material but exactly with philosophy connected to the music.

Eco (1989 (1962)) connects to major developments in the history of philosophy and science in the Western world, with its underlying notion of "possibility" and necessity of development since baroque times, in his comments to contemporary European music which has performance ambiguity.

A philosophical field of special interest could be ethics. Inspired by Taoism, Cardew (1971) described a number of individual virtues which improvised music both demands and cultivates in the musicians. Those are characteristics having to do with personal maturity - ranging from "Integrety" til "Acceptance of Death". Kösterke (1996) describing anarchy as an utopian ideal for free forms of being and working together. Here, as is also the case with Cardew, tolerance and the ability to abstract from one's own needs, are seen as important. samarvejde. Social virtues, like sharing responsibility and actively contribute to the totality are also added, however. It can also be mentioned, as Wilson (1998;G5) points out when dealing with the groups Nuova Consonanza and AMM, that musicians may have norms for what they would like to avoid, for instance playing elements from known music. Related to ethics and moral are also the issues about copyright fees, since it has irritated many musicians that composers receive money for music in which the musician has a decisive creative role. Globokar demonstrated against this by calling himself "Anonymous" on a recording of music by Stockhausen, Smith (1973;G2.1) ask for a practical solution - and Hambræus (1997;G5) shows a possible one, simply registering a work (or an arrangement of it) as of more authors, and the fee will be distributed among them.

The "social virtues" may also be viewed from a larger perspective dealing with society. New music can appear isolated from the large music public. It can be a relevant challenge to address broader circles, cf. Andréani (1972;H4). It can also be maintained that the form of collaboration manifested by musicians makes a difference as to what the listener finally perceives - whether the form is forced and autoritarian or it is am inspired and catching example of human collaboration. It is a fact, however, that much music, popular and classic, is still performed under forms of conductorship as autoritarian as at the times of Papa Haydn and that this is often regarded as quite unproblematic - nonwitstanding the fact that Western culture has in other areas during recent centuries accepted personal freedom and teamwork. Boredom is one possible way of reacting for the musician (Globokar 1976 s. 107), stress another one. Keller (1973) elucidates the role of musician's collaboration for the public with reference to the "Lehrstück"-view of Bertolt Brecht. Globokar (1971;G2.1) discusses the problem, relating it to a contrasing opinion which he sees as widespread, holding, as it seems, that music should sound obliging and not present too much challenge - p.62:

"Nowadays one notices everywhere the wish to "humanise" music. In order to achieve this, we must accept a risk and first "humanise" the tasks of the performer" (transl. by CBN).

Ratte (1996) connects to a concept which is known wichin musicology by considering improvisation as "informal music" in the sense of Adorno. And the reflections brought forward by Keller (1973) who, related to the Brecht-discussion, consideres a continous process of quoting and modifying each other's musical language elements still point forward. Improvised music consists, by its nature, to a high degree of dialogues between different ways of expression - the contrasts are not just different sides of one composer's conception, but there is instead a composite phenomenon of different "dialects" or even different languages, which may have quite different forms of logic. Various models of collaboration are discussed in Stanyek (1999;G3). Evan Parker who organised the festival he deals with, has coined the concept "multi-mindedness" denoting the dialogic and composite character of improvisation. ⁽³²⁾

Essential considerations concerning methods of analysis are given by Johnson-Laird (1991) and Lewis (1996;G3), who both attack the misunderstanding that improvisation is performed in a way comparable to the performance of a composition which is reproduced by heart. This misunderstanding is, with a concise word, called the "motif theory". ⁽³³⁾

Generative grammar is considered in detail with the first mentioned writer as a more adaequate frame of understanding - the music can be understood as being produced in a way similar to spoken language - cf. Small (1984).

For the actual analysis of improvised processes Lutz (1999;G3) provides tools which take the performers' different, possible roles toward each other and their shifts into account, cf. the insights of Sarath and Noll mentioned below, which also touch upon psychological matters. Additionally, Noll introduces categories closely describing the music in his typology of "pointillistic", "continuous", "dissociative", "conventionalised" fields of sound as well as "rest fields", opening up perspectives for describing improvisations very concretely. Last but not least, Nunn (1998), among other things, expands upon the customary concept of theme or motif, coining useful concepts of "Identities", their transformations and their transitions.

Many writers see improvisation as especially exploring the parameter of timbre, of non-countable time proportions and of interaction - dimension which traditional music writing, being fixed to pitches and metrum, has not been well-suited to handle - thus Karkoshka (1971;G2.1); Keller (1971;G3); Dahlhaus (1979;G3); Noglik (1990;G1.1); Meyer (1994;E2); Hellhund (1995;G3).

The study of time experience borders on the discipline of psychology. Sarath (1996) provides frames of reference which among other things take their starting-point in the now - "localized present", "overarching present" and a "retensive-protensive" time experience, differing from the "expanding temporality" of composition. Noll (1977) also treats the dialectique between "retention" which is an immediate keeping in memory and "reproduction", taking place more focused and at will. See also Wünsch (1991;H3.1) who distinguishes between "passive" and "active" repertory. ⁽³⁴⁾

IMPROVISATION/PSYCHOLOGY - CATEGORY G4

Logically, here we find a number of writings taking their starting-point in the playing process. Behne (1990) proposes a simple model for the musician's intrapsychic communication with himself/herself. The simplicity of this can be seen as resulting from the "reduction of complexity" which Andreas (1996) mentions. Flusser (1983) point to theories about playing as a human activity by Piaget and Caillois (1971;H4) as relevant tools. Hengesch (1973) also considers playing. Hovancsek (1996) deals with how the musician may challenge the usual order of sensory perception. Hearon (1991) points to the fact that improvised music par excellence can evoke an emotional process in the musician or the listener which is shifting and unforeseeable.

Through all this there is an underlining of the empirical unforeseeability and the free exploration. Therefore, this area could be of special interest for music therapists who work with improvisation. The considerations springing from the playing process point to the detailed process of musical work and puts it into perspective. They complement the various general analytical, psychological theories which deal with general frameworks for human development and its stages.

More themes can be mentioned: time experience which was also touched upon at the end of the last chapter. Riley (1976) is a comprehensive enquete with many different musicians' statements. General considerations on creativity are put forward by Andreas (1996) and Nachmanovitch (1990) - the last mentioned writer does so in a book which is well accessible to the common reader and in a perosnal way.

The writers mentioned here refer to psychological traditions of thought centering around the individual. The musical process is, however, often of a collective nature, cf. for instance Lutz (1999;G3) and Couldry concerning "group voice", see above under G2.1. It thus appears that there is a need for further thinking and integration of thoughts across disciplines in which musical experiences might possibly also inspire psychologists.

IMPROVISATION/MISCELLANEOUS - CATEGORY G5.

A number of the writings in this mixed category could be headed under the keyword "practise". Atton (1988)'s enquete deals among other things with how musicians practise and Cusack(1978)'s enquete deals entirely with this issue (or, as it is being put in at least one case, whether there is "practising" at all separate from music creation). The question in Kiseritsky and Schwabe (1995)'s enquete concerning whether improvisation is an attitude or a craft is also for a great part answered with reference to practical experience. Miscellaneous writings in which attitudes and opinions are in focus rather than systems of thought are also put here, for instance van den Berg (1985) in which Bailey questions the use of composing music instead of improvising it. Viewpoints which might reconcile the two sides can be seen with Barrett (1992;G5) and one is also expressed by Leandre in Laskin (1991;G2.1). Several writers compare improvised music to folk music; Eloy (1970) elaborates on this with some music ethnological considerations - cf. Atton (1988) and Richards (1992).

Here I have of course also put writings dealing with several topics.

OTHER WRITINGS. CATEGORY H.

GENERAL ACCOUNTS OF MUSIC HISTORY, DEALING THOROGHLY WITH THEMES CONCERNING NEW NOTATION FORMS AND/OR IMPROVISATION - CATEGORY H1

Generally, one has to warn against believing that the topics of notation and of improvisation are automatically covered in general music history books, even in recent ones dealing with music of the sixties, seventies and on. ⁽³⁵⁾

The only published Danish book including such topics seems still to be Maegaard (1964/71). Even if it only traces developments until the year 1964 it is a classic highly recommended, but of course one must supplement it with more recent material - Goldstein and Korgaard (1994;G1.1) can help.

For those who can read English, good assistance can be found in Brindle (1975/1986), which both provides orientation on tendencies and many good notation examples. Sutherland (1994), also British, has a more selective approach but is also an important book. German Gieseler (1975) has its strength in the large number of notation examples and their bibliographical notes. Also in French there exists a comprehensive book, Bosseur (1979). Finally, Cope (1971) gives an American perspective. ⁽³⁶⁾

In general music history books dealing with broad outlines, a certain amount of generalisation, arbitrariness and distortion of historical reality may occur, even in the better ones. It is therefore recommended also to consult more special literature if possible.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL, DISCOGRAPHICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL LITERATURE - CATEGORIES H2.1, H2.1.1 and H2.2

Only quite few writings dealing solely with bibliography of improvisation can be listed here, and they are not quite relevant for the focus of the present investigation - Anonymous (Egon Kraus)(1970;H2.1) which seems for the greatest part to deal with relatively old forms of improvisation practise and Anonymous (1973;H2.1) on various writings. Møllerhøj (1980;H2.1) is not about improvisation, but a general inventory of the works of Niels Viggo Bentzon.

This area can, however, not be characterised as a neglected one. Dean (1992;G1.1) has an important contribution which is divided into: "books and articles"; "printed musical scores"; "recordings and films" (CD medium not included) and finally "an illustrative core collection of recorded improvised music and how to obtain it" (LPs).

The biblio- and discography of Levaillant (1981;G1.1) also belong to the comprehensive ones. The recent Frisius (1996;G1.1) lists a number of writings and some examples of performing material. Within categories E1, E2 and G various material can be found passim.

Especially concerning performing material, Gieseler (1975;H1) must be mentioned, along with the exhibition catalogues Drew and others (1986;E1) as well as Brunner and others (1974;E1). Hoch (1991;E2) and Hoch (1992;E1), in which the list of performing material from the previous publication is reproduced together with various other relevant material, can supplement the others.

Clearly, the catalogues of the big publishing houses are important, but the quality of dealing with the topics can be doubtful. They should be read with a sound portion of scepticism and one should be ready to follow up with enquiries.

Concerning discography (including "cassettography"), Couldry (1995;G1.1) is a weighty and detailed account of a recent English development. Those materials are found both in notes and in an appendix with "Selected Recordings 1990-95" (for the most part CDs in the last mentioned one). Sutherland (1994;H1) has thematic small discographies after the individual chapters.

Mention must be made of May (1977;H2.1) with its compact way of individual characterisation which, by means of relevant keywords, provides a tangibly clear overview of a large repertory - this sets an example to be followed, by publishers and others!

The fact nonwithstanding that Bull (1987;H2.2) has been published in the USA, it seems to be the biographical reference work having the greatest number of particular composers, also when looking for European ones. Reference is made to a large number of indexes from which it is possible to trace additional material (articles) on the composers. The sometimes sparse selection of composers of the larger and more well-known reference works can thus be supplemented considerably.

It is a general problem to find updates of this kind of material. Concerning recordings, reviews can, however, assist the search - see below under I. RECORDINGS.

MUSIC TERAPHY LITERATURE - CATEGORY H3.1

H3.1 is a selection of music therapy literature which may suggest how music therapy contributes to the understanding of musical improvisation.

Music therapy means different things and connect to differing concepts of music (Becker 1996). Improvised music in its free forms relates to psychodynamically oriented music therapy (Scheiby 1984, Holck 1985 and Jørgensen 1986). One can still say that it builds on the method of free association which was discovered by the ancestor of this direction, Sigmund Freud. The music, which is often created together, is to be a free space for the client to explore her/himself and try out new roles. Bruscia (1987) provides a conprehensive and systematic overview of improvisational methods in music therapy.

It is possible to find literature in which the authors search for the foundations of psychodynamic music therapy in the historical development of music forms (for instance Søgaard and Sørensen (1987), Langenberg 1988, Lenz 1998 and Niedecken 1986) and reflects on this. In German there exists the concept "improvisation movement", used generally about the trend of music history in the sixties and seventies (Kapteina 1996). But the interest in music history and for a field like aesthetics which belongs specifically to music or to art is still modest - however, a state of affairs viewed critically by the present author (Bergstrøm-Nielsen 1999) and by Stige (1998). Aesthetics are also discussed by Friedmann (1996) who mentions a viewpoint from which aesthetic enjoyment could possibly be regarded in a reductionistic way as fulfillment of needs but who himself holds that the aesthetic dimension has its own laws which cannot be reduced to psychology. - Even Ruud who is a grand old man in music therapy, likes to describe music therapy in a broad context, but his interest in musicology is highly selective. He states a criticism of musicology, dealing with its neglects concerning describing music therapy and the effects of music (Ruud 1990). But when such words as improvisation and culture are mentioned together in the title of his most recent book, improvisation practise in the music culture surrounding us is not a part of his subject matter as could be expected, but instead aspects of social psychology (Ruud 1998). ⁽³⁷⁾

Bordering between the areas of music education and music therapy

one finds the exercises in Næss (1989) and Hegi (1993). For Kapteina (1992), pedagogical training functions as a warm-up activity for therapy.

Thanks to psychology, music therapy is able to go beyond some difficulties related to dealing with personal experience, which could appear as too private and arbitrary for being dealt with theoretically. Both for the development of the specific interdisciplinary relations for music therapy and for music therapy seen from outside in a general context of music studies, it can be of special interest not only to consider a psychological view as an alternative frame of reference instead of, for instance, the historical one, but also to consider how the psychological view can be combined and integrated with concepts dealing with music itself.

Seen from theory of science, it is a challenge to consider the apparent quite contradicotry views which the psychological and the musical discourses could lead to (Bergstrøm-Nielsen 1984). Theory of language is a possible model for combining the concepts (Bergstrøm-Nielsen (1999;H3.2); Pavlicevic 1997 and Ruud 1998).

The method for interpretation of music is of crucial importance to the interdisciplinary character of music therapy. Bruscia is a prominent writer in this field (Bruscia 1987 and 1994; see also Stige and Østergaard (1994), Stige (1995 and 1996) and Bergstrøm-Nielsen (1999). See also the writings on graphic notation in H3.2. And even before one has "found out" what the music "means", ⁽³⁸⁾ there is a question about the basic description and analysis of music (Pedersen and Scheiby 1981; Deuter 2001).

WRITINGS RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF INTUITIVE MUSIC AND GRAPHIC NOTATION AT AALBORG UNIVERSITY AND OTHER PLACES - CATEGORY H3.2

Here are my own a accounts of the contents and method in my subjects. Bergstrøm-Nielsen (1992ffA and B) are used in the teaching of graphic notation. 1993 is a comprehensive article on the same topic. Jensen (1998) and Dammeyer (1998) provide examples of practical use of the method as a part of case descriptions. Langenbach (1998) argues for the special relevance of graphic notation in therapy contexts, and Mahns (1998) throws it into relief with other methods. Concerning intuitive music there are the collections of exercises (1990ffA+B;F1.1) which also address teachers also within music education and people who would like to explore this music form for theirselves. (1999) provides a presentation of both subjects.

OTHER - THAT WHICH IS NOT PRINTED PAPER. CATEGORIES I-K.

RECORDINGS. CATEGORY I

Today we have a quite good and comprehensive selection of improvised music on CD. One background for this is the independent organising activity from the side of musicians theirselves, which also meant the forming of independent record labels. In England, such labels became known in wide circles as so-called "indies". Some of them are run by individuals with their own music - this is the case with activity on such different scales as Stockhausen Complete Edition and Blaise Siwula's label with "burn-on-demand"-CDs. Acta, FMP, Incus, Matchless are examples of indies of an earlier date having started before the time of CDs, releasing music by several different musicians, even if (as is the case with Acta and Matchless) they are run by individuals, or mainly by individuals. It seems that the big commercial labels are still reluctant to deal with freely improvised music, whereas music having written introductions like Music & Graphic.. (1988) might on some occasions creep into their repertory.

The independent music is to a higher degree sold through post and email order (sometimes direct) than is the more mainstream-oriented and saleable music, even if in some countries special shops exist. Post- and email-companies selling music from a large number of labels have also begun to flourish. ⁽³⁹⁾

The periodicals Resonance (G1.2), Hurly Burly (G1.2) and Gränslöst (G1.2) take care of/have taken care of the overview for the reader with a large number and thorough reviews - see more periodicals in G1.2, G1.3 and Musings(J1.1) and The Improvisor(J1.1).

VARIABLE WORKS AND MUSIC PLAYED FROM RECIPES - CATEGORY I1

A number of historical works can be found on CD, but coverage is not complete. While, for instance Stockhausens' Aus den Sieben Tagen was re-released on 7 CD-s, possibly only one CD release exists with a piece from the other collection by Stockhausen of verbally notated pieces, (Soundplay 99;I1). The various releases of music from the New York School on Hat Hut Records (The New York School 1-3 (1992/19921994;I1); Chr. Wolff. For Ruth Crawford (1994;I1); Earle Brown: Four Systems (1994;I1)) testify to a recent endeavour to cover this area.

The taking over at the record market of CDs at the end of the eighties put LPs into a historical sidetrack, but re-releases were also prompted. - The situation for recordings is different to that of written publications, speaking of traditional publishing houses. It seems to be their policy to emphasize certain composers whose works are then regularly published. The attitude to recordings from the side of big labels seems to be more selective and eclectic.

Viewed on their own background, many kinds of music are represented in this category, and the CD medium also brings new things forward which would hardly appear in written form - as, for instance, Fancy Dancer (1995;I1); Fish of the Week (1996;I1); Assessments and Translations (1995;I1); "Listen, feetpackets" (1989;I1).

FREE IMPROVISATIONS - CATEGORY I2

Hardly any other music genre invites greater variation of instruments than free improvisation. All known "classic" and "popular", ethnic and self-built instruments can be used, as the present list also makes apparent.

The music may sound relatively traditional and melodic-harmonic like in No World... (1992;I2) or more "characterised by the use of sounds" like Transmutating (1993;I2). Some musicians work within a jazz idiom, as in 'Live'...(1993;I2) and Infinite Blueness (1996;I2). Maxwels Dämon - Nefastismaschine (1996;I2) and For Four Rooms (1996;I2) cultivates pointillistic ways of playing, as also known from new music with a classic background. A way of playing inviting much listening to each other and making poasible a high degree of flexibility.

In freely improvised usic, musicians often form shifting constellations. Other kinds of musicians may also perform in many constellations, but in improvised music it influences the music on another scale. And improvised music sets no limitation in advance as to how ensembles are put together. Wheels Within Wheels (1996;I1) and Synergetics - Phonomanie (1996;I2) demonstrate this especially clearly with spectacular meetings between very different musicians. In Up Your Sleeve (1980;I2); Relay III - Random Play (1996;I2), European Chaos String Quintet (1993;I2), Linien (1996;I2) and Company 91 (1991;I2), the pluralist aspect is an important characteristic of the music. er det pluralistiske en væsentlig egenskab ved musikken. This can both be in the form of shifting references to known styles in the common musical lnaguage or of contrasts between musicians and what follows from this in the playing process. Pluralism has a historical background in collage music from Ives and on in classical music history. Here it develops on on new grounds - polyphony, which was earlier the composer's notion of dialogue, becomes a real dialogue. Instead of "agreeing upon" a common basis, musicians can work directly with that which comes up in the situation.

ELECTRONIC ADRESSES AND RELATED. CATEGORY J.

Internet-addresses may change, therefore I have stated my own homepage as an entrance to a number of places, the URLs of which will be updated if needed. - Generally one can say about the significance of the internet that there has been a flourishing of sites for individual musicians, record labels and local concert organisations. FRIM's site is a comprehensive and frequently updated general forum for Scandinavian concerts and news, as well as international links to musicians and organisations. Also European Free Improvisation Pages provides good overview of labels with exact data on their releases, musicians (especially those related to the British Scene at the time of writing this) and more, despite a confusing division between those labels having links from the front page and those stated under links inside the site (those having links from the front page are described by Stubley himself). Articles in full-text can be found at Col Legno, Hurly Burly, Improvising Across Borders, London Musician's Collective and The Improvisor. Improvising Across Borders is a comprehensive manifestation of academic writings from a 1999 San Diego congress.

Links to sites on Brian Eno's Oblique Strategies (both the work itself and comments are accessible) have a special category, since they are not on my homepage.

EXHIBITIONS WITH NEW NOTATIONS AND THEIR CATALOGUES. CATEGORY K

Certainly, exhibitions have in many cases contributed to bringing new notations to a larger public, and they represent, together with their catalogues, based on research, editorial and curator work, a part of the activity which should not be forgotten. Appendix K contains a copy of the informative historical list of exhibitions from Davies (1986B;E1), an update of later exhibitions and a list of catalogues.

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In trying to be as complete as possible, mention should also be made of the video medium, which at present yields a limited number of relevant releases, thus "Steps Across the Border" from Look Now!/RecRec Genossenschaft, Zürich documenting Fred Frith, and some concert recordings from Incus Records.

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